What is Critical Pedagogy?
Critical pedagogy is a philosophy of education and social movement that developed and applied concepts from critical theory and related traditions to the field of education and the study of culture. It insists that issues of social justice and democracy are not distinct from acts of teaching and learning. Critical pedagogy identifies education as being inherently political, and therefore, not neutral, challenging the assumption that classrooms can or should exist apart from questions of power, oppression, and social transformation.
At its core, critical pedagogy rejects what Paulo Freire termed the “banking model” of education—where knowledge is simply deposited into passive students—in favor of a dialogical approach where learners and teachers co-create understanding. The goal of critical pedagogy is emancipation from oppression through an awakening of the critical consciousness, based on the Portuguese term conscientização. A central tenet of Freire’s critical pedagogy is “conscientizacao” or critical awareness that precedes action. Critical awareness begins when learners become aware of sociopolitical inequities and then take action to mitigate those contradictions.
Origins & Lineage
Critical pedagogy was founded by the Brazilian philosopher and educator Paulo Freire, who promoted it through his 1968 book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Born in 1921 in Recife, Brazil, Freire developed his ideas about education while working directly with poor and working-class adults who had been denied access to schooling. After completing his studies, Freire went on to work in a state-sponsored literacy campaign. It was here that Freire began to interact with the peasant struggle.
Deeply influenced by liberation theology, he pioneered an emancipatory pedagogy rooted in critical literacy - a tool not only for understanding the world but for transforming it. Following the military coup in Brazil in 1964, Freire was imprisoned for 70 days before being exiled for nearly two decades. Freire was briefly imprisoned and later forced into exile, spending years working in countries such as Chile, the United States, and Switzerland. During this exile, he wrote Pedagogy of the Oppressed. His return to Brazil in 1980 did not mark the end of his activism; until his death on May 2, 1997, Freire remained a voice for the marginalized and oppressed.
Critical Pedagogy is believed to have its roots in the critical theory of the Frankfurt School, which was established in 1923. It subsequently spread internationally, developing a particularly strong base in the United States, where proponents sought to develop means of using teaching to combat racism, sexism, and oppression. Key figures include Henry Giroux (1943-Present), a founding theorist in critical pedagogy, professor, and scholar; bell hooks (1952-Present), a scholar, feminist, and activist whose work focuses on intersectionality, feminism, and critical pedagogy; and Peter McLaren (1948-Present), a leading scholar in critical pedagogy whose work relates to Marxist theory, critical literacy, and cultural studies.
How It’s Practiced
Critical pedagogy de-centers the traditional classroom, which positions teachers at the center. The curriculum and classroom with a critical pedagogy stance is student-centered and focuses its content on social critique and political action. In practice, this means replacing hierarchical teacher-student relationships with collaborative inquiry. Critical pedagogy pushes against passive learning, which places the instructor in a position of much higher power than the student. Active learning is one method in which the instructor can become less powerful in the classroom by having students collaborate in creating the content of the course.
Problem-posing education: Instead of presenting students with information, teachers pose questions that encourage students to think critically and engage with the material on a deeper level. Structurally, these three aspects include a curriculum that needs to be founded upon students’ interests, cultural needs, and community empowerment. Teachers employing critical pedagogy engage students in examining their lived experiences, analyzing how power operates in society, and connecting classroom learning to broader struggles for justice.
Active learning - Adopt strategies that utilize multiple methods of engagement in teaching and learning. Diverse perspectives - Incorporate multiple and alternative perspectives that promote critical thinking and introspection. Critical consciousness - Practice reflection, motivation, and action as an approach to analyzing and redressing social inequities in education and society at-large. Methods include dialogue circles, collaborative projects on community issues, analysis of media and texts through critical lenses, and reflection on students’ own positioning within systems of power.
Critical Pedagogy Today
Critical pedagogy has expanded far beyond its origins in adult literacy programs. As it grew, it incorporated elements from fields like the Human rights movement, Civil rights movement, Disability rights movement, Indigenous rights movement, postmodern theory, feminist theory, postcolonial theory, and queer theory. Critical pedagogy overlaps with pedagogies such as feminist pedagogy, anti-racist pedagogy, and inclusive pedagogy. These three pedagogies strongly pull from key theories introduced by critical pedagogues.
Contemporary applications include critical information literacy in libraries, where critical information literacy encourages learners to see themselves as part of the “scholarly conversation” and as creators of information, rather than just consumers, and provides them with ways to recognize and challenge dominant powers within the current systems of creating, sharing, and evaluating information. Educators apply critical pedagogy across disciplines—from accounting to STEM education to language learning—adapting Freire’s principles to diverse contexts.
In 2025, critical pedagogy finds expression in teacher education programs, professional development workshops, symposia dedicated to critical pedagogical practice, and increasingly in digital learning environments. Critical digital pedagogy extends these principles into online spaces, addressing questions of access, surveillance, and algorithmic power.
Common Misconceptions
Critical pedagogy is often misunderstood as indoctrination or political activism disguised as education. Critical pedagogy has been demonized in the ongoing culture war and its attacks on educators because Paulo Freire was heavily influenced by Marx and his theory is rooted in critiquing and transforming capitalism. However, it is notable that this does not mean that critical pedagogy is militant or violent. Freire (and his contemporaries) do not, for example, endorse the violent Cultural Revolution of the Soviet Union.
Critical pedagogy is not about telling students what to think; rather, it provides tools for examining how knowledge is constructed and whose interests are served by particular ways of understanding the world. It does not reject content mastery or academic rigor—it reframes these within questions of purpose and context. It is also not a fixed curriculum or lesson plan template, but rather a philosophical orientation that can be adapted across contexts.
Finally, critical pedagogy is sometimes confused with Critical Race Theory (CRT). While CRT can inform critical pedagogical practice, the two are distinct frameworks. Critical Race Theory (CRT) has been used by all sides of the political spectrum as a marketing tool or divisive instrument. In popular media, there is not much accurate information about it.
How to Begin
For those new to critical pedagogy, the foundational text remains Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970, 50th anniversary edition 2018). bell hooks’ Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom (1994) offers an accessible entry point that connects Freire’s ideas to contemporary classroom practice. Henry Giroux’s work provides theoretical depth for understanding critical pedagogy in relation to democracy and cultural politics.
Practitioners might begin by examining their own classroom practices: Who speaks? Whose knowledge counts? How do curriculum choices reflect or challenge existing power relations? Simple shifts—like inviting students to co-design assignments, analyzing current events through multiple perspectives, or making space for students’ lived experiences as valid knowledge—can be first steps toward critical pedagogical practice.
Professional development opportunities include the Critical Pedagogy Symposium (held annually since 2021), graduate courses in education departments focused on social justice education, and reading groups organized around critical pedagogy texts. Many educators find mentorship crucial; seeking out colleagues who practice critical pedagogy can provide support and accountability in this challenging work.